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Brown planthopper

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Nilaparvata lugens
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Fulgoromorpha
Family: Delphacidae
Subfamily: Delphacinae
Tribe: Delphacini
Genus: Nilaparvata
Species:
N. lugens
Binomial name
Nilaparvata lugens
(Stål, 1854)

The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) is a planthopper species that feeds on rice plants (Oryza sativa L.). These insects are among the most important pests of rice, which is the major staple crop for about half the world's population.[1] They damage rice directly through feeding and also by transmitting two viruses, rice ragged stunt virus and rice grassy stunt virus. Up to 60% yield loss is common in susceptible rice cultivars attacked by the insect. The BPH is distributed throughout Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, China, Fiji, India,[2] Indonesia, Japan, North and South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Their alternative host plant other than rice is Leersia hexandra.

Biology

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The brown planthopper is dimorphic, with fully winged 'macropterous' and truncate-winged 'brachypterous' forms. The macropterous forms are potentially migrants and are responsible for colonizing new fields. They migrate on the wind, with East Asian populations undergoing closed circuit journeys between Indochina and the Far East. Malay Archipelago and South Asia populations, on the other hand, make one-way migrations to Indochina.[3] After settling on rice plants, they produce the next generation, where most of the female insects develop as brachypters and males as macropters. Adults usually mate on the day of emergence, and the females start laying eggs from the day following mating. Brachypterous females lay 300 to 350 eggs, whereas macropterous females lay fewer eggs. The eggs are thrust in a straight line generally along the mid-region of the leaf sheath. Eggs hatch in about six to nine days. The newly hatched nymphs are cottony white, and turn purple brown within an hour. They feed on plant sap. They pass through five instars before becoming adults.

Damage

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BPH[4] infest the rice crop at all stages of plant growth. Due to feeding by both the nymphs and adults at the base of the tillers, plants turn yellow and dry up rapidly. During the early infestation stage, round yellow patches appear, which soon become brownish due to the drying up of the plants. This condition is called 'hopper burn'. Temperature is a critical factor that affects the life activities of this insect. The hatchability and survival rate are the highest around 25 °C. The eggs are highly sensitive to desiccation and soon shrivel when the host plant starts wilting. BPH population growth is maximal in a temperature range from 28 to 30 °C[citation needed].

Predators

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Video monitoring of various predators in the presence of dead or live (immobilized or not) brown planthoppers

Predators of this insect include the spiders Pardosa pseudoannulata and Araneus inustus.[5] In some cases, BPHs lay eggs in the rice seed beds (also known as rice nurseries) shortly before transplanting, so enter the field in this manner.[6]

Differential mortality of predators and hoppers does not appear to be the only factor for insecticide-induced resurgence.[7] Some insecticides evidently increase the protein content of BPH male accessory glands, and thereby increase planthopper fecundity.[8][9] Some insecticides increase the amount of amino acids and sucrose available in the phloem of rice plants, and thereby increase BPH survival.[10]

Management and control

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Excessive use of urea as nitrogenous fertilizer and insecticides can lead to outbreaks by increasing the fecundity of the brown planthopper, and by reducing populations of natural enemies.[11][12][13] It follows that the primary integrated pest management (IPM) approach includes restricting the inappropriate and excessive use of these inputs. For example in 2011, the Thai government announced an initiative to respond to a major brown planthoppers outbreak by restricting outbreak-causing insecticides including abamectin and cypermethrin; the decision was supported by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).[14] IRRI also outlined recommendations foe an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) action plan to limit planthopper outbreaks.[15] In December 2011, the IRRI held a conference in Vietnam to address the threats of insecticide misuse and explore options for mitigation.[16]

Rice varieties with resistance to BPH, e.g. IR64, are important for preventing outbreaks.[17][18][19] However, in areas with low insecticide use, high levels of BPH resistance are not usually necessary.[20] Chemical mutagenesis can significantly increase or decrease BPH resistance levels of rice.[21] Some chemical insecticides, e.g. imidacloprid, can affect the gene expression of rice and thereby increase susceptibility to BPH.[22]

In an attempt to make BPH control more species-specific, researchers are trying to develop methods of turning off specific BPH genes for digestion-, defense- and xenobiotic metabolism. Many novel genes for these functions have been detected in tissue from BPH intestines.[23]

Some plant lectins are antifeedants to BPH and if properly formulated may have the potential to protect rice from BPH.[24][25][26][27]

Impact of climate change

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Research indicates that BPH nymphs are already living at the upper limits of tolerable temperatures. This suggests that climate warming in tropical regions with occasional extremely high temperatures would limit the survival and distribution of BPH.[28]

References

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  1. ^ Khush, GS (1999). "Green revolution: preparing for the 21st century". Genome. 42 (4): 646–55. doi:10.1139/g99-044. PMID 10464789.
  2. ^ Oudhia, P. (2000). "Traditional medicinal knowledge about green leafhopper, Nephotettix spp., in Chhattisgarh (India)". International Rice Research Notes. 25 (3): 40.
  3. ^ Hu, Qing-Ling; Zhuo, Ji-Chong; Fang, Gang-Qi; Lu, Jia-Bao; Ye, Yu-Xuan; Li, Dan-Ting; Lou, Yi-Han; Zhang, Xiao-Ya; Chen, Xuan; Wang, Si-Liang; Wang, Zhe-Chao; Zhang, Yi-Xiang; Mazlan, Norida; Oo, San San; Thet, Thet (2024-04-26). "The genomic history and global migration of a windborne pest". Science Advances. 10 (17): eadk3852. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adk3852. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 11042747. PMID 38657063.
  4. ^ "Brown plant hopper (BPH) | Rice Knowledge Management Portal - Rice,Paddy,Dhan,Chawal,Rice Research Domain, Rice Extension Domain, Rice Farmers Domain ,Rice General Domain, Rice Service Domain,RKMP,Rice in India,Rice Government Schemes, Rice ITKs, Rice FLDs, Rice Package of Practices". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2012-07-12.
  5. ^ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C.; Nesbitt, H. (2001). "Effectiveness of brown planthopper predators: population suppression by two species of spider, Pardosa pseudoannulata (Araneae, Lycosidae) and Araneus inustus (Araneae, Araneidae)". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 4 (2): 187–193. doi:10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60122-3.
  6. ^ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C.; Nesbitt, H. J. (2002). "Establishment of Nilaparvata lugens Stål in rice crop nurseries: A possible source of outbreaks". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 5 (1): 75–83. doi:10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60134-X.
  7. ^ Chelliah, S.; Heinrichs, E. A. (1980). "Factors Affecting Insecticide-Induced Resurgence of the Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens on Rice". Environmental Entomology. 9 (6): 773–777. doi:10.1093/ee/9.6.773.
  8. ^ Wang, LiPing; Shen, Jun; Ge, LinQuan; Wu, JinCai; Yang, GuoQin; Jahn, Gary C. (2010). "Insecticide-induced increase in the protein content of male accessory glands and its effect on the fecundity of females in the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Crop Protection. 29 (11): 1280–1285. Bibcode:2010CrPro..29.1280W. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2010.07.009.
  9. ^ Ge, Lin-Quan; Yao Chen; Jin-Cai Wu; Gary C Jahn (2011). "Proteomic analysis of insecticide triazophos-induced mating–responsive proteins of Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera:Delphacidae)". J. Proteome Res. 10 (10): 4597–4612. doi:10.1021/pr200414g. PMID 21800909.
  10. ^ Jin-cai Wu, Jian-xiang Xu; Shu-zong Yuan, Jing-lan Liu; Yong-hou Jiang, Jun-feng Xu; Liu, Jing-lan; Jiang, Yong-hou; Xu, Jun-Feng (2001). "Pesticide-induced susceptibility of rice to brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 100 (1): 119–126. Bibcode:2001EEApp.100..119W. doi:10.1046/j.1570-7458.2001.00854.x. S2CID 55055863.
  11. ^ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C. (2006). "Brown planthopper outbreaks and management". Cambodian Journal of Agriculture. 7 (1): 17–25.
  12. ^ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Jahn, G. C. (2002). "Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of Nilaparvata lugens (Stål): immediate response". Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Rural Development Administration / Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 163–180.
  13. ^ Preap, V.; Zalucki, M. P.; Nesbitt, H. J.; Jahn, G. C. (2001). "Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of Nilaparvata lugens (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 4 (1): 75–84. doi:10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7.
  14. ^ "IRRI supports Thai move to stop insecticide use in rice". Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2011-06-03. IRRI media release: IRRI supports Thai move to stop insecticide use in rice.
  15. ^ action plan Archived May 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  16. ^ international conference Archived May 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ Athwal, D. S.; Pathak, M. D.; Bacalangco, E. H.; Pura, C. D. (1971). "Genetics of Resistance to Brown Planthoppers and Green Leafhoppers in Oryza sativa L". Crop Sci. 11 (5): 747–750. doi:10.2135/cropsci1971.0011183X001100050043x.
  18. ^ Alam, S. N.; Cohen, M. B. (8 December 1998). "Detection and analysis of QTLs for resistance to the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, in a doubled-haploid rice population". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 97 (8): 1370–1379. doi:10.1007/s001220051031. S2CID 13088029.
  19. ^ Sangha, Jatinder; Chen, Yolanda; Kaur, Jatinder; Khan, Wajahatullah; Abduljaleel, Zainularifeen; Alanazi, Mohammed; Mills, Aaron; Adalla, Candida; Bennett, John; Prithiviraj, Balakrishnan; Jahn, Gary; Leung, Hei (15 February 2013). "Proteome Analysis of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Mutants Reveals Differentially Induced Proteins during Brown Planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) Infestation". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 14 (2): 3921–3945. doi:10.3390/ijms14023921. PMC 3588078. PMID 23434671.
  20. ^ Cohen, Michael B.; Alam, Syed N.; Medina, Edith B.; Bernal, Carmencita C. (1997). "Brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, resistance in rice cultivar IR64: mechanism and role in successful N. lugens management in Central Luzon, Philippines". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 85 (3): 221–229. doi:10.1023/A:1003177914842.
  21. ^ Sangha, Jatinder Singh; Yolanda H. Chen; Kadirvel Palchamy; Gary C. Jahn; M. Maheswaran; Candida B. Adalla; Hei Leung (2008). "Categories and Inheritance of Resistance to Nilaparvata lugens (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) in Mutants of Indica Rice 'IR64'". Journal of Economic Entomology. 101 (2): 575–583. doi:10.1603/0022-0493(2008)101[575:CAIORT]2.0.CO;2. PMID 18459427. S2CID 39941837.
  22. ^ Cheng, Yao; Shi, Zhao-Peng; Jiang, Li-Ben; Ge, Lin-Quan; Wu, Jin-Cai; Jahn, Gary C. (March 2012). "Possible connection between imidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 102 (3): 213–219. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.01.003. PMC 3334832. PMID 22544984.
  23. ^ Bao, Yan-Yuan; Wang, Ying; Wu, Wen-Juan; Zhao, Dong; Xue, Jian; Zhang, Bao-Qin; Shen, Zhi-Cheng; Zhang, Chuan-Xi (April 2012). "De novo intestine-specific transcriptome of the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens revealed potential functions in digestion, detoxification and immune response". Genomics. 99 (4): 256–264. doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2012.02.002. PMID 22361737.
  24. ^ Powell, K.S.; Gatehouse, A.M.R.; Hilder, V.A.; Gatehouse, J.A. (1993). "Antimetabolic effects of plant lectins and plant and fungal enzymes on the nymphal stages of two important rice pests, Nilaparvata lugens and Nephotettix cinciteps". Entomol. Exp. Appl. 66: 119–126. doi:10.1007/BF02382280.
  25. ^ Powell, K.S.; Gatehouse, A.M.R.; Hilder, V.A.; Gatehouse, J.A. (1995). "Antifeedant effects of plant lectins and an enzyme on the adult stage of the rice brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens". Entomol. Exp. Appl. 75: 51–59. doi:10.1007/BF02382779.
  26. ^ Powell, K.S.; Gatehouse, A.M.R.; Hilder, V.A.; Peumans, W.; Damme, E. Van; Boonjawat, J.; Horsham, K.; Gatehouse, J.A. (1995). "Antimetabolic effects of related plant lectins towards nymphal stages of Nilaparvata lugens". Entomol.exp.appl. 75: 61–65. doi:10.1007/BF02382780.
  27. ^ Rao, KV; Rathore, K. S.; Hodges, T. K.; Fu, X.; Stoger, E.; Sudhakar, D.; Williams, S.; Christou, P.; Bharathi, M.; Bown, D. P.; Powell, K.; Spence, J.; Gatehouse, A. R.; Gatehouse, J. (1998). "Expression of snowdrop lectin (GNA) in transgenic rice plants confers resistance to rice brown planthopper". The Plant Journal. 15 (4): 469–477. doi:10.1046/j.1365-313X.1998.00226.x. PMID 9753773.
  28. ^ Piyaphongkul, Jiranan; Pritchard, Jeremy; Bale, Jeffrey; Zars, Troy (12 January 2012). "Can Tropical Insects Stand the Heat? A Case Study with the Brown Planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stål)". PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e29409. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...729409P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029409. PMC 3257224. PMID 22253720.

लाल mohamad

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